1. Consider the formation of the earth and the creation of its structure including the solid earth, ocean and atmosphere in an essay format. The discussion should include planetary formation, the reasons and consequences of the initial molten state, and the formation and chemical evolution of the ocean and atmosphere. Use appropriate references.

The formation of the universe began with the Big Bang approximately 14 billion years ago. (Olson, 16) This was immediately followed with the condensation of Hydrogen and Helium atoms which lead to star formation and galaxies. (Olson, 16)

To be exact, star formation occurs from gases deformed in nebula or during collisions of galaxies or star clusters. (Olson, 16)Gravitational instability of nebulus of material around the form star creates proto-planets. (Olson, 25) Mass of proto-planets leads to further accretion of matter into growing planetoid. (Olson, 25)

Earth was formed exactly as such. This took place with the accretion of the solar nebula. The primitive atmosphere was produced due to the emitting of gases by prehistoric volcanoes. These gases contained no oxygen and was probably toxic by modern definition. The Earth then was almost completely molten due to high frequency collisions by many foreign objects in the universe and led to strong volcano activities. (Dalrymple, 21 – 33)

A pivotal event took place when a strong collision might have caused the Earth to tilt at an angle and the remnants formed the moon. As time goes by, the Earth cooled down and a solid crust is formed, there by allowing liquid water to exist and collate on the surface of the Earth. (Dalrymple, 21 – 33)

Donald B. Olson. 2015. Introduction to Physical Oceanography. MSC 301. pg 16 – 25
Dalrymple, G. B. 1991. The Age of the Earth. California: Stanford University Press. Pg 21 – 33

2. Discuss in an essay the current views concerning the origin of life on our planet. Cover the debate on the process and possible sites where life was first formed. Consider the strengths and weaknesses behind each of the possible origins. How are the first and second laws of thermodynamics applied to the origin of life and evolutionary dynamics? Provide appropriate references.

The oldest rock on earth is known to be about 3.8 Byr (Olson, 39) However, most of the records are lost because the earth's surfaces are constantly moving and rejuvinating. Some of the oldest samples we have are from the Gunflint formation in NW Australia and some of these are cyanobacteria. (Olson, 39)

This brings us to question about the origin of life, and we will explore them one by one. The first scientific theory put forward was by Charles Darwin, in which he suggested that the origin of life might have been a “warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, lights, heat, electricity, etc. present, so that a protein compound was chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex changes.” (Priscu) This is a good theory in that it accounts for all the chemical make up of life in this theory. However, one short coming is that there are numerous possible places in this world and possibly in other planets where this condition might be available but life was not formed there. As such, this model might have been slightly more simplistic and does not cover many more aspects of life.

Another theory presented is the primordial soup hypothesis. This theory by Oparin and Haldane suggests that the early Earth had a chemically reducing atmosphere and that it is exposed to energy in various forms and produced simple organic compounds, after which, these compounds accumulated in a soup with many organic chemicals and further transformation brought about more complex organic polymers and life began in this soup. (Shapiro, 110)

2. a) What is &quot;setup&quot; and give two examples of how thi...

2. a) What is "setup" and give two examples of how thi...